The changing role of number facts in the development of arithmetic skills: A cross-sectional study on students’ views and performance

Csaba Csíkos 1 * , Ildikó Bereczki 2, Fanni Biró 1
More Detail
1 Institute of Education, University of Szeged, Szeged, HUNGARY
2 ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, HUNGARY
* Corresponding Author
EUR J SCI MATH ED, Volume 14, Issue 2, pp. 241-250. https://doi.org/10.30935/scimath/18088
Published: 12 March 2026
OPEN ACCESS   14 Views   9 Downloads
Download Full Text (PDF)

ABSTRACT

Students’ performance in mathematics is a major focus of education research. One of the cornerstones of mathematical performance is arithmetic skills. The system of arithmetic skills is a complex one, the components of which can play different roles in the developmental processes. This study investigated number facts, general arithmetic skills, and students’ views on the importance of knowing multiplication number facts to better understand the possibly changing role of these components. Participants were 3rd, 5th, and 7th grade students (N = 254). The results suggest that even in their early years of schooling, students possess strong beliefs about the value of knowing multiplication number facts by heart. However, many continue to struggle with recalling answers, such as 7 times 8, within three seconds. This cross-sectional development study also reveals the evolving role of number facts in students’ arithmetic performance.
Keywords: number facts, arithmetic skills, multiplication table

CITATION

Csíkos, C., Bereczki, I., & Biró, F. (2026). The changing role of number facts in the development of arithmetic skills: A cross-sectional study on students’ views and performance. European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(2), 241-250. https://doi.org/10.30935/scimath/18088

REFERENCES

  • Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. G. (2008). Clarifying differences between reading skills and reading strategies. The Reading Teacher, 61, 364-73. https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.61.5.1
  • Ashcraft, M. H. (1982). The development of mental arithmetic: A chronometric approach. Developmental Review, 2(3), 213-236. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(82)90012-0
  • Ashkenazi, S., & Silverman, S. (2017). Multiple skills underlie arithmetic performance: A large-scale structural equation modeling analysis. Journal of Numerical Cognition, 3(2), 496-515. https://doi.org/10.5964/jnc.v3i2.64
  • Aunio, P, & Niemivirta, M. (2010). Predicting children’s mathematical performance in grade one by early numeracy. Learning and Individual Differences, 20, 427-435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.06.003
  • Baroody, A. J. (2010). Fostering early numeracy in preschool and kindergarten. In P. J. Brooks, & V. Kempe (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and literacy development (pp. 1-10). SAGE.
  • Bisanz, J., Sherman, J. L., Rasmussen, C., & Ho, E. (2005). Development of arithmetic skills and knowledge in preschool children. In J. I. D. Campbell (Ed.), Handbook of mathematical cognition (pp. 143-162). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203998045-17
  • Björklund, C., Marton, F., & Kullberg, A. (2021). What is to be learnt? Critical aspects of elementary arithmetic skills. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 107(2), 261-284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-021-10045-0
  • Boaler, J. (2014). Research suggests that timed tests cause math anxiety. Teaching Children Mathematics, 20(8), 469-474. https://doi.org/10.5951/teacchilmath.20.8.0469
  • Carr, J. M., Schoephoerster, K., & Riegel, C. (2024). The impact of kinesthetic instructional strategies and manipulatives on fourth grader’s self-efficacy and self-confidence toward multiplication. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 27(3), 361-377. https://doi.org/10.1080/10986065.2024.2343036
  • Chong, S. L., & Siegel, L. S. (2008). Stability of computational deficits in math learning disability from second through fifth grades. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 300-317. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640801982387
  • Csapó, B., & Molnár, G. (2019). Online diagnostic assessment in support of personalized teaching and learning: The eDia system. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01522
  • Csíkos, C. (2022). Metacognitive and non-metacognitive processes in arithmetic performance: Can there be more than one meta-level? Journal of Intelligence, 10(3), Article 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10030053
  • De Morgan, A. (1854). Elements of arithmetic. Walton and Maberly. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004689251_mor3-b29287030
  • Dunton, L. (1891). Methods of teaching arithmetic in primary schools. Silver, Burdett & Co., Publishers.
  • Frenck-Mestre, C., & Vaid, J. (1993). Activation of number facts in bilinguals. Memory & Cognition, 21, 809-818. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03202748
  • Gagné, R. M. (1983). Some issues in the psychology of mathematics instruction. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 14(1), 7-18. https://doi.org/10.2307/748793
  • Garin, O. (2014). Ceiling effect. In A. C. Michalos (Ed.), Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research (pp. 631-633). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_296
  • Gilmore, C., Clayton, S., Cragg, L., McKeaveney, C., Simms, V., & Johnson, S. (2018). Understanding arithmetic concepts: The role of domain-specific and domain-general skills. PLoS ONE, 13(9), Article e0201724. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201724
  • Guskey, T. R., & Anderman, E. M. (2013). In search of a useful definition of mastery. Educational Leadership, 71(4), 18-23.
  • Hidayatullah, A., & Csíkos, C. (2023). The role of students’ beliefs, parents’ educational level, and the mediating role of attitude and motivation in students’ mathematics achievement. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 33, 253-262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-023-00724-2
  • Isoda, M., & Olfos, R. (2020). Introduction: Japanese theories and overview of the chapters in this book. In M. Isoda, & R. Olfos (Eds.), Teaching multiplication with lesson study. Japanese and Ibero-American theories for international mathematics education (pp. 1-21). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28561-6_1
  • Jordan, N. C., Hanich, L. B., & Kaplan, D. (2003). Arithmetic fact mastery in young children: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 85, 103-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-0965(03)00032-8
  • McMullen, J., & Siegler, R. S. (2020). Spontaneous focusing on multiplicative relations and fraction magnitude knowledge. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 22(4), 351-359. https://doi.org/10.1080/10986065.2020.1816284
  • Muncer, G. C. (2020). Exploring factors associated with maths performance in children and adolescents aged 11-18 years [PhD thesis, University of Southampton].
  • Nogues, C. P., & Dorneles, B. V. (2021). Systematic review on the precursors of initial mathematical performance. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2, Article 100035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100035
  • Olfos, R., Isoda, M., & Estrella, S. (2020). Multiplication of whole numbers in the curriculum: Singapore, Japan, Portugal, the USA, Mexico, Brazil, and Chile. In M. Isoda, & R. Olfos (Eds.), Teaching multiplication with lesson study. Japanese and Ibero-American theories for international mathematics education (pp. 25-35). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28561-6_2
  • Pehkonen, E., & Pietilä, A. (2003). On relationships between beliefs and knowledge in mathematics education. In Proceedings of the CERME-3 (Bellaria) Meeting (pp. 1-8).
  • Pittalis, M., Pitta-Pantazi, D., & Christou, C. (2018). A longitudinal study revisiting the notion of early number sense: Algebraic arithmetic as a catalyst for number sense development. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 20(3), 222-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/10986065.2018.1474533
  • Reed, H. C., Stevenson, C., Broens-Paffen, M., Kirschner, P. A., & Jolles, J. (2015). Third graders’ verbal reports of multiplication strategy use: How valid are they? Learning and Individual Differences, 37, 107-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.010
  • Shanley, L., Clarke, B., Doabler, C., Kurtz-Nelson, E., & Fien, H. (2018). Measuring early mathematics knowledge via number skills and task types. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 20(4), 324-336. https://doi.org/10.1080/10986065.2018.1509419
  • Ter Heege, H. (1985). The acquisition of basic multiplication skills. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 16, 375-388. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00417193
  • Walczyk, J. J. (2000). The interplay between automatic and control processes in reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(4), 554-566. https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.35.4.7
  • Winograd, T. (1980). What does it mean to understand language? Cognitive Science, 4(3), 209-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0364-0213(80)80003-6